A multidisciplinary team of researchers used structural mechanics and computational design to understand how the wheel was invented.
Some historians believe the wheel is the most significant invention ever created. Historians and archeologists have artifacts from the wheel’s history that go back thousands of years, but knowing that the wheel first originated back in 3900 B.C. doesn’t tell the entire story of this essential technology’s development.
A recent study by Daniel Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering Associate Professor Kai James, Lee Alacoque, and Richard Bulliet analyzes the wheels’ invention and its evolution. Their analysis supports a new theory that copper miners from the Carpathian Mountains in southeastern Europe may have invented the wheel. However, the study also recognizes that the wheel’s evolution occurred incrementally over time — and likely through considerable trial and error. The findings suggest that the original developers of the wheel benefited from uniquely favorable environmental conditions that augmented their human ingenuity. The study, published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, has gained the worldwide attention of experts and more than 58 media outlets, including Popular Mechanics, Interesting Engineering, and National Geographic en Español.
“The way technology evolves is very complex. It's never as simple as somebody having an epiphany, going to their lab, drawing up a perfect prototype, and manufacturing it — and then end of story,” said James. “The evidence, even before our theory, suggests that the wheel evolved over centuries, across a very broad geographical range, with contributions from many different people, and that's true of all engineering systems. Understanding this complexity and seeing the process as a journey, rather than a moment in time, is one of the main outcomes of our study.”
Necessity Is the Mother of Invention
In 3900 B.C., the Neolithic copper miners from the Carpathian Mountains lacked written language, and they were not advanced mathematically or scientifically. However, they discovered the wheel as a means to an end.
Recently, archeologists uncovered a series of small drinking mugs that rolled on wheels. There were features on the mugs, like wickerwork patterns, indicative of woven basketry used by miners around 3900 B.C. These replicas represent the earliest known depictions of wheeled transport.
Artifacts
Tools of Engagement
James and his team use computational analysis and design as a forensic tool to learn about the past, studying engineered systems designed by prehistoric people. Computational analysis offers a deeper understanding of how these systems were created.
“We have to interpret clues from ancient societies without a writing system — artifacts like bows and arrows, flutes, or boats — but we need to use additional tools to do this,” James explained. “Carbon dating tells us when, but it doesn't tell us how or why. Using solid mechanics and computational modeling to recreate these environments and scenarios that gave rise to these technologies is a potential game-changer.”
Their theory suggests that the wheel evolved from simple rollers, which took the form of a series of untethered cylinders, poles, or tree trunks. These rollers were arranged side-by-side in a row on the ground, and the workers would transport their cargo on top of the rollers to avoid the friction caused by dragging.
“Over time, the shape of these rollers evolved such that the central portion of the cylinder grew progressively narrower, eventually leaving only a slender axle capped on either end by round discs, which we now refer to as wheels,” James explained.
Diagram of the Wheel Evolution
The researchers derived a series of mathematical equations that describe the physics of the rollers. They then created a computer algorithm that simulates the progression from roller to wheel-and-axle by repeatedly solving these equations.
“Our investigation also indicates that environmental conditions played a key role in this evolutionary process,” he said. “Previous studies have shown that rollers are only effective under very specific circumstances. They require flat, firm, and level terrain, as well as a straight path. Neolithic mines, with their human-made tunnels and covered terrain would have offered an environment highly conducive to roller-based transport.”
The research was funded by National Science Foundation grant # 2311078.
Citation: Alacoque, L. R., Bulliet, R. W., & James, K. A. (2024). Reconstructing the invention of the wheel using computational structural analysis and Design. Royal Society Open Science, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240373
Other Research on the Horizon
James’ research group is currently working to create algorithms to design aircraft structures for crashworthiness, focusing on helicopters. He uses these algorithms to design vehicles that can withstand impact with minimal structural damage and minimal passenger injury.
He is also designing 3D-printed morphing mechanisms. These mechanisms contain active materials that change shape in response to heating. By systematically combining active and passive materials in a precise spatial arrangement, James’ group is able to encode specific motions into the material layout. In this way, they create specialized mechanisms that transform into pre-programmed shapes upon being submerged in a heated water bath.
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